Socio-economic development and building

In the time of Temur and the Timurids cities grew and crafts developed: pottery, stone carving, wood carving, carpentry and the famous Samarkand paper were produced. Trade routes linked the region with China, India, Russian lands and the Near East. In 1428 Ulugh Beg carried out a monetary reform and minted copper fulus (“fulus-i adliya”); according to the book these coins were struck in seven cities and made trade easier. The duty taken from merchants was called tamgha. The main types of landholding were state land (mulk-i divani), private land (mulk), waqf land dedicated to religious institutions and community land. Owners of suyurghal land, given in return for service, were often exempt from taxes; tarkhan charters also gave privileges. Farmers paid kharaj: up to about a third of the crop on irrigated land and one-sixth to one-eighth on rain-fed land; there were also ushr (a tenth), zakat on livestock (2.5 percent, according to the book) and begor (compulsory labour).