Italy and Spain, 1918–1939

After the First World War unemployment, economic hardship and political instability grew in Italy; in March 1919 Benito Mussolini formed the fascist movement. After the “March on Rome” in October 1922 King Victor Emmanuel III appointed him head of government on 31 October 1922, and from 1925 he established an open dictatorship, restricting opposition parties and the free press and calling himself “Il Duce” (the leader). In foreign policy Italy invaded Ethiopia in 1935–1936, left the League of Nations in 1937, drew closer to Germany and Japan in 1936–1937, issued racial laws against Jews in 1938, seized Albania in April 1939 and entered the Second World War on 10 June 1940. In Spain General Primo de Rivera held a military dictatorship in 1923–1930, a republic was proclaimed in 1931, and the Popular Front won the election of February 1936. On 17–18 July 1936 a group of generals staged a coup (soon led by General Francisco Franco) and the civil war began: Germany and Italy supported Franco, the USSR and the International Brigades supported the Republicans, and Britain and France followed non-intervention. The war ended on 1 April 1939 with Franco’s victory, and he ruled until 1975; Spain did not formally enter the Second World War.