Turkey, Iran and Afghanistan, 1946–1991

In Turkey a multi-party system was introduced in 1946 and the Democratic Party won the 1950 election; Turkey joined NATO in 1952 and co-operated with the Western bloc. The army played an important role in politics: there were military interventions and coups in 1960, 1971 and 1980 (12 September 1980 – General Kenan Evren), and a new constitution was adopted by referendum in 1982. From 1983 Turgut Özal’s government transformed the economy through privatisation of the state sector and export promotion; in 1987 Turkey applied for membership of the European Community. In Iran in 1951–1953 Prime Minister Mohammad Mosaddegh nationalised the oil industry, and in 1953 Mosaddegh’s government was overthrown in a coup (the involvement of US and British intelligence services was later confirmed by documents) and the power of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi was consolidated; in 1963 the “White Revolution” (land reform, votes for women, literacy) was announced, the economy grew on oil revenues, but political freedoms were restricted. Mass protests in 1978–1979 led to the fall of the shah’s regime: on 1 April 1979 the Islamic Republic of Iran was proclaimed and Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini became leader. The Iran–Iraq war lasted from 1980 to 1988. In Afghanistan King Zahir Shah was overthrown in 1973 and Mohammad Daoud became president; in April 1978 a coup brought the People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan to power, internal struggle grew, and Soviet troops were sent in December 1979; Soviet troops fought mujahideen groups until 1989, the internal war continued after that, and millions of Afghans became refugees.