International relations in the 16th–18th centuries

In 16th–18th century Europe the causes of wars were threefold: the question of a single empire (the Habsburgs) versus independent national states (France, England); the Catholic–Protestant conflict; and the struggle for colonies and trade routes. The Thirty Years’ War of 1618–1648 began as a religious conflict in the German lands and then drew in many states. In 1648 the Peace of Westphalia was made: Catholic and Protestant churches were recognised as equal, Dutch independence was confirmed, France’s influence grew, and Germany stayed fragmented. The War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714) weakened France and the Habsburgs and strengthened England. In the Northern War (1700–1721) Russia defeated Sweden and reached the Baltic Sea. England gained most from the Seven Years’ War (1756–1763), taking Canada from France and sharply reducing French influence in India. The Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca of 1774 ended a Russo-Ottoman war: the Crimean Khanate was declared independent of the Ottomans (Russia annexed it in 1783), and Russia gained land on the Black Sea coast and the right to sail its ships there.