1916–1918: the end of the war

The war subordinated every belligerent’s economy to military needs: food shortages, rationing and state control grew, and populations tired. In Russia a revolution took place in February 1917 (old style; March new style), Tsar Nicholas II abdicated, and the Provisional Government continued the war. On 7 November 1917 (25 October old style) the Bolsheviks led by Lenin took power and adopted the Decree on Peace; an armistice was signed in December 1917 and on 3 March 1918 the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk: Russia gave up claims to Poland, the Baltic lands and Ukraine, and Kars, Ardahan and Batum went to Turkey. On 8 January 1918 US President Woodrow Wilson announced his “Fourteen Points”. In March 1918 Germany launched its last big offensive, which failed; French Marshal Foch became supreme commander of the Entente armies. Bulgaria signed an armistice on 29 September, the Ottoman Empire on 30 October and Austria-Hungary on 3 November. A revolution broke out in Germany: Wilhelm II abdicated on 9 November and the armistice was signed in the Compiègne forest on 11 November. The Treaty of Versailles was signed on 28 June 1919: Germany lost territory and had to pay reparations (the sum was fixed in 1921). About 10 million soldiers and millions of civilians died; four empires — German, Russian, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman — came to an end.