The fall of the Republic and the decline of the Empire

Slave revolts and disputes among citizens weakened the Roman Republic. In the 1st century BCE generals relying on hired armies became the main force. Crassus and Pompey long fought for power; Julius Caesar became famous after his victories in the Gallic wars. In 49 BCE he crossed the Rubicon with his army (the phrase “The die is cast!” is linked to this) and began a civil war. Having beaten Pompey, Caesar became dictator; later he was declared dictator for life. In Rome “imperator” was at first an honorary military title; Caesar was formally a dictator, not an emperor. On 15 March 44 BCE he was murdered in the Senate by a conspiracy of Brutus and other senators. The republic was not restored; new civil wars began instead. Caesar’s great-nephew and heir Octavian, allied with Antony, defeated Brutus, then beat Antony at the naval battle of Actium in 31 BCE; Antony and Cleopatra took their own lives in 30 BCE, and Egypt became a Roman province. In 27 BCE the Senate gave Octavian the title Augustus; from then the age of the Roman Empire (the principate) is counted. The textbook’s date of 29 is not accurate; the main date is 27. In the 2nd century CE, under Trajan (from 98), the empire reached its greatest extent.